The alveolus: Our current knowledge of how the gas exchange unit of the lung is constructed and repaired

Abstract

The mammalian lung completes its last step of development, alveologenesis, to generate sufficient surface area for gas exchange. In this process, multiple cell types that include alveolar epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts undergo coordinated cell proliferation, cell migration and/or contraction, cell shape changes, and cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions to produce the gas exchange unit: the alveolus. Full functioning of alveoli also involves immune cells and the lymphatic and autonomic nervous system. With the advent of lineage tracing, conditional gene inactivation, transcriptome analysis, live imaging, and lung organoids, our molecular understanding of alveologenesis has advanced significantly. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the constituents of the alveolus and the molecular pathways that control alveolar formation. We also discuss how insight into alveolar formation may inform us of alveolar repair/regeneration mechanisms following lung injury and the pathogenic processes that lead to loss of alveoli or tissue fibrosis.

Keywords: Aging; Alveolar type 1 cell; Alveolar type 2 cell; Alveolus; Emphysema; Endothelial cell; Fibroblast; Fibrosis; Homeostasis; Macrophage; Myofibroblast; Pericyte; Regeneration; Repair; Signaling.