Mitochondria-targeted cyclometalated iridium (III) complexes: Dual induction of A549 cells apoptosis and autophagy

Abstract

In this study, we synthesized 4 cyclometalated iridium complexes using N-(1,10-phenanthrolin-5-yl)picolinamide (PPA) as the main ligand, denoted as [Ir(ppy)₂PPA]PF₆ (ppy = 2-phenylpyridine, Ir1), [Ir(bzq)₂PPA]PF₆ (bzq = benzo[h]quinoline, Ir2), [Ir(dfppy)₂PPA]PF₆ (dfppy = 2-(3,5-difluorophenyl)pyridine, Ir3), and [Ir(thpy)₂PPA]PF₆ (thpy = 2-(thiophene-2-yl)pyridine, Ir4). Compared to cisplatin and oxaliplatin, all four complexes exhibited significant anti-tumor activity. Among them, Ir2 demonstrated higher cytotoxicity against A549 cells, with an IC₅₀ value of 1.6 ± 0.2 μM. The experimental results indicated that Ir2 primarily localized in the mitochondria, inducing a large amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, that decreased in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reduced ATP production, and further impaired mitochondrial function, leading to cytochrome c release. Additionally, Ir2 caused cell cycle arrest at the S phase and induced apoptosis through the AKT-mediated signaling pathway. Further investigations revealed that Ir2 could simultaneously induce both apoptosis and autophagy in A549 cells, with the latter acting as a non-protective mechanism that promoted cell death. More importantly, Ir2 exhibited low toxicity to both normal LO2 cells in vitro and zebrafish embryos in vivo. Consequently, these newly developed Ir(III) complexes show great potential in the development of novel and low-toxicity anticancer agents.

Keywords: A549 cells; Apoptosis; Autophagy; Iridium complexes; Mitochondria.