The hydrologic connectivity of non-floodplain wetlands (NFWs) with downstream water (DW) has gained increased importance, but connectivity via groundwater (GW) is largely unknown owing to the high complexity of hydrological processes and climatic seasonality. In this study, a causal inference method, convergent cross mapping (CCM), was applied to detect the hydrologic causality between upland NFW and DW through GW. CCM is a nonlinear inference method for detecting causal relationships among environmental variables with weak or moderate coupling in nonlinear dynamical systems. We assumed that causation would exist when the following conditions were observed: (1) the presence of two direct causal (NFW → GW and GW → DW) and one indirect causal (NFW → DW) relationship; (2) a nonexistent opposite causal relationship (DW → NFW); (3) the two direct causations with shorter lag times relative to indirect causation; and (4) similar patterns not observed with pseudo DW. The water levels monitored by a well and piezometer represented NFW and GW measurements, respectively, and the DW was indicated by the baseflow at the outlet of the drainage area, including NFW. To elucidate causality, the DW taken at the adjacent drainage area with similar climatic seasonality was also tested as pseudo DW. The CCM results showed that the water flow from NFW to GW and then DW was only present, and any opposite flows did not exist. In addition, direct causations had shorter lag time than indirect causation, and 3-day lag time was shown between NFW and DW. Interestingly, the results with pseudo DW did not show any lagged interactions, indicating non-causation. These results provide the signals for the hydrologic connectivity of NFW and DW with GW. Therefore, this study would support the importance of NFW protection and management.
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