The association between living alone and depressive symptoms and the role of pet ownership among Japanese workers

Abstract

Background: Living alone has been positively associated with the prevalence of depressive symptoms. We examined how a combination of living alone and pet ownership relates to depressive symptoms.

Methods: As part of the Japan Epidemiology Collaboration on Occupational Health Study, we conducted a survey on health-related lifestyles, including living arrangements and pet ownership, among 12,763 employees of five companies in 2018-2021. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 11-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (cutoff score ≥ 9). A Poisson regression model with a robust variance estimator was used to calculate prevalence ratio and 95% confidence interval (CI) while adjusting for covariates.

Results: Among the participants, 30.9% were depressed, 17.7% had pets, and 29.1% lived alone. Compared to individuals living with others but not with a pet, those living alone and not with a pet had a 1.17 times higher prevalence ratio of depressive symptoms (95% CI: 1.08-1.26). The corresponding figures were 1.03 (95% CI: 0.95-1.11) for those living with others and pet(s) and 1.42 (95% CI: 1.18-1.69) for those living alone but with pet(s).

Conclusion: Living alone was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms. The association was rather stronger among individuals with vs. without pets. Pet ownership may not be associated with decreased depressive symptoms.

Keywords: CES-D; Depression; Depressive symptoms; Japan; Living alone; Pet ownership.