Gulf War Illness (GWI) is an unrelenting multi-symptom illness with chronic central nervous system and peripheral pathology affecting veterans from the 1991 Gulf War and for which effective treatment is lacking. An increasing number of studies indicate that persistent neuroinflammation is likely the underlying cause of cognitive and mood dysfunction that affects veterans with GWI. We have previously reported that fingolimod, a drug approved for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, decreases neuroinflammation and improves cognition in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we investigated the effect of fingolimod treatment on cognition and neuroinflammation in a mouse model of GWI. We exposed C57BL/6 J male mice to GWI-related chemicals pyridostigmine bromide, DEET, and permethrin, and to mild restraint stress for 28 days (GWI mice). Control mice were exposed to the chemicals' vehicle only. Starting 3 months post-exposure, half of the GWI mice and control mice were orally treated with fingolimod (1 mg/kg/day) for 1 month, and the other half were left untreated. Decreased memory on the Morris water maze test was detected in GWI mice compared to control mice and was reversed by fingolimod treatment. Immunohistochemical analysis of brain sections with antibodies to Iba1 and GFAP revealed that GWI mice had increased microglia activation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, but no difference in reactive astrocytes was detected. The increased activation of microglia in GWI mice was decreased to the level in control mice by treatment with fingolimod. No effect of fingolimod treatment on gliosis in control mice was detected. To explore the signaling pathways by which decreased memory and increased neuroinflammation in GWI may be protected by fingolimod, we investigated the involvement of the inflammatory signaling pathways of protein kinase R (PKR) in the cerebral cortex of these mice. We found increased phosphorylation of PKR in the brain of GWI mice compared to controls, as well as increased phosphorylation of its most recognized downstream effectors: the α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α), IκB kinase (IKK), and the p65 subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NFκB-p65). Furthermore, we found that the increased phosphorylation level of these three proteins were suppressed in GWI mice treated with fingolimod. These results suggest that activation of PKR and NFκB signaling may be important for the regulation of cognition and neuroinflammation in the GWI condition and that fingolimod, a drug already approved for human use, may be a potential candidate for the treatment of GWI.
Keywords: Cognition; Fingolimod; GWI; Integrated stress response; Microglia activation; Neuroinflammation; PKR.
Published by Elsevier B.V.