Background: Water and energy shortages and food security challenges associated with global warming are essential issues affecting human survival and development. Rice is one of the world's top three staple food crops. In the present study, the energy footprint (EF), carbon footprint (CF), energy production efficiency (EPE), carbon production efficiency (CPE), and economic benefit (EB) of dry direct-seeded rice (DSR), wet direct-seeded rice (WSR), and transplanted rice (TPR), respectively, were integrated and assessed.
Results: The yield of WSR and TPR was 9.64% and 13.76% higher than that of DSR, respectively. However, DSR has less irrigation and less intensive field tillage; therefore, its energy input, and CF, were 37.47% and 44.29%, and 29.35% and 34.77%, lower than those of WSR and TPR, respectively; the EPE and CPE were obviously improved; and the EB was not lower than that of WSR and TPR. Current rice production relies heavily on non-renewable energy inputs such as nitrogen fertilizer, diesel, and machinery. Therefore, the key to improving EPE, CPE, and EB in rice production at the same time as reducing CF was to improve water use efficiency and decrease the intensity of paddy tillage.
Conclusion: The DSR has higher social, economic, and ecological benefits and can be the preferred rice planting method for rice production areas. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
Keywords: carbon footprint; energy; production efficiency; rice; water management.
© 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.