Long-term nitrogen dioxide exposure and cause-specific mortality in the U.S. Medicare population

Abstract

Background: Since 1971, the annual National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) has remained at 53 ppb, the impact of long-term NO₂ exposure on mortality is poorly understood.

Objectives: We examined associations between long-term NO₂ exposure (12-month moving average of NO₂) below the annual NAAQS and cause-specific mortality among the older adults in the U.S.

Methods: Cox proportional-hazard models were used to estimate Hazard Ratio (HR) for cause-specific mortality associated with long-term NO₂ exposures among about 50 million Medicare beneficiaries living within the conterminous U.S. from 2001 to 2008.

Results: A 10 ppb increase in NO₂ was associated with increased mortality from all-cause (HR: 1.06; 95% CI: 1.05-1.06), cardiovascular (HR: 1.10; 95% CI: 1.10-1.11), respiratory disease (HR: 1.09; 95% CI: 1.08-1.11), and cancer (HR: 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00-1.02) adjusting for age, sex, race, ZIP code as strata ZIP code- and state-level socio-economic status (SES) as covariates, and PM_2.5 exposure using a 2-stage approach. NO₂ was also associated with elevated mortality from ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, and lung cancer. We found no evidence of a threshold, with positive and significant HRs across the range of NO₂ exposures for all causes of death examined. Exposure-response curves were linear for all-cause, supra-linear for cardiovascular-, and sub-linear for respiratory-related mortality. HRs were highest consistently among Black beneficiaries.

Conclusions: Long-term NO₂ exposure is associated with elevated risks of death by multiple causes, without evidence of a threshold response. Our findings raise concerns about the sufficiency of the annual NAAQS for NO₂.

Keywords: Air pollution; Cancer mortality; Cardiovascular mortality; Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease mortality; Congestive heart failure mortality; Pneumonia mortality; Racial inequality; Respiratory mortality.