Poor maternal nutrition can cause several maladaptive phenotypes in exposed offspring. While non-sex-specific and female-specific adaptations are well-documented, male-specific outcomes are still poorly understood. Of particular interest are the outcomes in bulls and rams, as developmental programming directly impacts long-term productivity of the animal as well as human food security. The following review discusses the impact of poor maternal dietary energy and protein on bull and ram developmental programming as it relates to growth, development, and reproductive capacity. The review also highlights the importance of the timing of maternal dietary insult, as early-, mid-, and late-gestational insults can all have varying effects on offspring.
Keywords: bull; developmental programming; growth; ram; reproduction.