Neuromodulation of the Pineal Gland via Electrical Stimulation of Its Sympathetic Innervation Pathway

Susannah C Lumsden; Andrew N Clarkson; Yusuf Ozgur Cakmak

doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00264

Neuromodulation of the Pineal Gland via Electrical Stimulation of Its Sympathetic Innervation Pathway

Front Neurosci. 2020 Apr 2:14:264. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00264. eCollection 2020.

Authors

Susannah C Lumsden^{1

2}, Andrew N Clarkson^{1

3

4}, Yusuf Ozgur Cakmak^{1

2

4

5}

Affiliations

¹ Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
² Brain Health Research Centre, Dunedin, New Zealand.
³ Brain Research New Zealand, Dunedin, New Zealand.
⁴ Medical Technologies Centre of Research Excellence, Auckland, New Zealand.
⁵ Centre for Health Systems and Technology, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Abstract

Stimulation of the pineal gland via its sympathetic innervation pathway results in the production of N-acetylserotonin and melatonin. Melatonin has many therapeutic roles and is heavily implicated in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. In addition, N-acetylserotonin has recently been reported to promote neurogenesis in the brain. Upregulation of these indoleamines is possible via neuromodulation of the pineal gland. This is achieved by electrical stimulation of structures or fibres in the pineal gland sympathetic innervation pathway. Many studies have performed such pineal neuromodulation using both invasive and non-invasive methods. However, the effects of various experimental variables and stimulation paradigms has not yet been reviewed and evaluated. This review summarises these studies and presents the optimal experimental protocols and stimulation parameters necessary for maximal upregulation of melatonin metabolic output.

Keywords: AANAT; NAS; SCG; melatonin; neuromodulation; pineal; stimulation; sympathetic.

Publication types

Review