A tiered intake assessment approach, ranging from the conservative default and refined budget method to refined dietary exposure assessments using national food consumption surveys is presented and applied to derive maximum potential global colour intake estimates. The US and UK markets served as representative for the world and the EU, respectively, to determine the maximum potential exposure ceilings for eleven colours in various sub-populations, including brand-loyal consumers. Industry-reported global use levels were assigned as the maximum level. Conservative intake assessments for food colours used in non-alcoholic beverages were estimated for the general population 2 + y, toddlers, children 3-9 y, adolescents 10-17 y, adults 18-64 y, elderly 65-74 y, very elderly 75 + y based on assumed uses in high intake markets. Refined dietary exposures were estimated using either the 2-day food consumption data from the 2013-2016 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey or the 4-day food consumption data from the 2008-2016 U.K. National Diet and Nutrition Survey Rolling Programme. In the most refined market-share adjusted assessment, brand-specific market volume data were used to place appropriate weight on corresponding beverage type uses. Strong concordance between the refined budget method and the brand-loyal deterministic approach was shown, in which the latter assumes that the maximum use level of the colour is present in 100% of non-alcoholic beverages. This study shows that safety of colours - both synthetic and natural - in beverages at proposed use levels can be supported for any geography, with all intake estimates falling below the acceptable daily intake in refined assessments. Importantly, this study demonstrates that the refined budget method is a valid first-tier screening assessment to prioritise food colours that may benefit from more refined intake assessments when warranted.
Keywords: Food colour; allura red; amaranth; annatto norbixin; azorubine (carmoisine); brilliant black; brilliant blue; budget method; curcumin; exposure; food additive; paprika extract; quinoline yellow; sunset yellow; tartrazine.