Background: Across the spectrum of patient care for opioid overdose, an important, yet frequently overlooked feature is the bystander, or witness to the overdose event. For other acute medical events such as cardiac arrest and stroke, research supports that the presence of a bystander is associated with better outcomes. Despite the similarities, however, this well-established conceptual framework has yet to be applied in the context of overdose patient outcomes. The objective of this study was to assess the association between the nature of the bystander-patient relationship and prehospital care measures in patients being treated for opioid overdose.
Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted among adults who received naloxone in the prehospital setting for suspected opioid overdose. Patients were identified using a preexisting, longitudinal registry documenting all prehospital administrations of naloxone by first responders in a midsized community. Individuals who received at least one naloxone administration for a suspected opioid overdose between June 1st, 2016 to July 31st, 2018, with available EMS and medical record data were eligible for study inclusion. Bystander type was defined referencing psychology literature and were categorized as: close (spouse/family), proximal (friends), and distal (no relation to patient). The association between bystander type and prehospital patient care measures were estimated using logistic and linear regression models.
Results: A total of 602 opioid overdose encounters among 545 patients were identified. Patents tended to be male (67.2%), white (73.6%), and aged 25-44 years (57.1%). Among patients with proximal bystanders present, average time to naloxone administration was 2.4 min less (95% CI = -4.7, -0.2), compared to distal bystanders, after adjusting for covariates. Overdose encounters with 911 dispatch codes more indicative of opioid overdose (i.e., 'overdose/poisoning' vs 'unconscious/fainting') were associated with having a close or proximal bystander present compared to a distal bystander (ORclose vs. distal = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.0, 3.3; ORproximal vs. distal = 3.6, 95% CI = 1.8, 7.1).
Conclusion: Presence of a proximal bystander during an overdose event is associated with dispatch codes indicative of an overdose and shorter times to naloxone administration compared with those with distal bystanders. These findings offer opportunities for public education and engagement of overdose harm reduction strategies.
Keywords: emergency medical services; first responder; naloxone; opioid; overdose.