Persistence of the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole in river water alone or in the co-presence of ciprofloxacin

Abstract

Sulfamethoxazole and ciprofloxacin are among the most prescribed antibiotics and are frequently detected in surface water ecosystems. The aim of this study was to assess the role of a riverine natural microbial community in sulfamethoxazole (SMX) degradation in presence and absence of ciprofloxacin (CIP). River samples were collected from a stretch of the Tiber River highly impacted by human pressure. An experimental set up was performed varying some abiotic (dark/UV-light) and biotic (presence/absence of microorganisms) conditions that can affect antibiotic degradation. The residual concentrations of SMX and CIP were measured (HPLC-MS or HPLC-UV/FLD) and the effects on the natural microbial community were assessed in terms of microbial number (N. live cells/mL) and structure (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization - FISH). Finally, the occurrence of the antibiotic resistance sul1 gene was also verified using quantitative PCR (qPCR). In 28 days, in the presence of both UV-light and microorganisms SMX disappeared (<LOD). SMX decreased partially in the dark (24%) and a slightly higher depletion was found in sterile river water and UV-light (30%). However, only in the presence of the microbial populations and in dark conditions, SMX disappeared subsequently at days 60. In the co-presence of CIP and light, SMX was more persistent (50%) than when alone. The depletion of CIP was not negatively influenced by SMX occurrence. The antibiotics did not negatively affect the microbial numbers. The FISH analysis showed that some bacterial populations were initially inhibited by the presence of the antibiotics, but at the end of the experiment, a general increase in most groups was observed together with an increase in the copy numbers of the sul1 gene. Therefore, the antibiotics at the dose of 500 μg/L did not have biocide effects on the natural microbial community and, instead, promoted some resistant natural bacterial populations able to degrade them.

Keywords: Biodegradation; Fluoroquinolones; Photodegradation; Resistance genes; River ecosystem; Sulfonamides.