Extragonadal Effects of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease in Women during Menopausal Transition

Abstract

The risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease increases significantly in postmenopausal women. Until recently, the underlying mechanisms have been primarily attributed to estrogen decline following menopause. However, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels rise sharply during menopausal transition and are maintained at elevated levels for many years. FSH receptor has been detected in various extragonadal sites, including osteoclasts and endothelial cells. Recent advances suggest FSH may contribute to postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Here, we review the key actions through which FSH contributes to the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease in women as they transition through menopause. Advancing our understanding of the precise mechanisms through which FSH promotes osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease may provide new opportunities for improving health-span for postmenopausal women.

Keywords: Follicle-stimulating hormone; cardiovascular disease; extragonadal effects; osteoporosis; postmenopause.