Renal calculi are a common cause of blood in the urine (hematuria) and pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. They occur in 1 of every 11 people in the United States at some time in their lifetimes, with men affected 2 to 1 over women. Development of the stones is related to decreased urine volume or increased excretion of stone-forming components such as calcium, oxalate, uric acid, cystine, xanthine, and phosphate.
Calculi may also be caused by low urinary citrate levels (an inhibitor of stone formation) or excessive urinary acidity. Renal calculi may present with excruciating pain, and most patients present to the emergency department in agony. A single event does not cause kidney failure, but recurrent renal calculi can damage the tubular epithelial cells, leading to functional loss of the renal parenchyma.
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