This article summarizes how the multilevel (clinical, functional, structural, and biological) and dynamic (i.e., subjected to changes with time) heterogeneity of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease challenges a personalized approach for these patients. In particular, the following issues are discussed: (1) the conceptual differences between personalized and precision medicine, (2) how to frame the complexity and heterogeneity of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by considering the precise meaning of the terms personalized medicine and precision medicine, and (3) how to translate all these novel concepts into clinical practice and move the field forward.
Keywords: biomarkers; bronchitis; emphysema; lung function; network analysis.