Observational studies are indispensable for etiologic research, and are key to test life-course hypotheses and improve our understanding of neurologic diseases that have long induction and latency periods. In recent years a plethora of advanced design and analytic techniques have been developed to strengthen the robustness and ultimately the validity of the results of observational studies, and to address their inherent proneness to bias. It is the responsibility of clinicians and researchers to critically appraise and appropriately contextualize the findings of the exponentially expanding scientific literature. This critical appraisal should be rooted in a thorough understanding of advanced epidemiologic methods and techniques commonly used to formulate and test relevant hypotheses and to keep bias at bay.
Keywords: competing risks; critical appraisal; critical periods; life-course epidemiology; mediation; plasticity; resilience; risk accumulation.
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