Excessive copper concentrations, known to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, have been tested with respect to their effects on transcript abundance and related proteins involved in oxidative stress responses. The results show that the stromal photosynthetic functions were more ROS sensitive than the membrane-located reactions. The rbcL over-expression compensated for the damage only at 10 microM Cu, whereas the genetic stimulation of alpha-tocopherol biosynthesis led to the protection of membrane reactions up to 50-100 microM Cu. For this reason, the gradual growth drop of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cultures observed under increasing Cu(2+) concentrations matched better with the loss of photosynthetic capacity than with those of photosynthetic quantum yields. According to Larcher's stress concept, the results allow the identification of gene markers for the alarm (rbcL), the hardening (FeSOD, VTE3) and the exhaustion [cyclin-dependent protein kinase (cdk), psbA] phases. These genes can be used to rapidly evaluate the state of oxidative stress in algae and putatively in other plant cells.