The validity of the free-ion model (FIM) for the element lutetium (Lu), a member of the lanthanides, was assessed in experiments with the bacterium Vibrio fischeri. The FIM is mainly based on divalent metals and synthetic ligands and has not yet been validated for the trivalent lanthanides. The bioluminescence response of V. fischeri was studied at different Lu concentrations in the presence and absence of natural and synthetic organic ligands [citrate, malate, oxalate, acetate, ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA), and nitrilotriacetate (NTA)]. All ligands were tested separately to ensure that their concentrations would not cause adverse effects themselves. Free Lu3+ concentrations were calculated with a speciation program, after extension of its database with the relevant Lu equilibria. The results confirmed the FIM for Lu: that is, in contrast to total dissolved Lu concentrations, free Lu3+ concentrations had an apparent relationship with the response of V. fischeri. However, a contribution of minor inorganic Lu complexes cannot be ruled out. In the presence of malate and oxalate, the EC50 for Lu3+ decreased faster in time than for the other ligands, indicating lower elimination rates. With an EC50 of 1.57 microM, Lu3+ is more toxic than La3+, Cd2+, or Zn2+ and approximately equally as toxic as Cu2+. Although the pH increased slightly during the experiments, it was shown that the influence of pH on Lu speciation was limited.