Beavers (Castor fiber) from the Middle Elbe region were re-introduced in the Biesbosch, The Netherlands, and estuary contaminated with cadmium (Cd) by the rivers Rhine and Meuse. The Middle Elbe region was also polluted with Cd, but the beavers released in the Biesbosch originated from two relatively clean habitats within this region. The Biesbosch population grew slower than other released beaver populations in Europe, and it was hypothesized that Cd intoxication was responsible for this. The beavers fed primarily on the bark and leaves of willow and poplar trees, which contained great concentrations of Cd. The average Cd concentration in the food (6.9 micrograms/g(dry)) was above the maximum tolerable concentration for large domestic herbivores. The Cd concentrations of the kidneys and hair of the beavers were correlated with those in the bark of the trees. The Cd concentration in the hair increased threefold after the release in the Biesbosch, and the geometric mean Cd kidney concentration was 55 micrograms/g(dry). Using three different models, an average Cd kidney concentration in the beavers of > 100 micrograms/g(dry) was predicted in the Biesbosch in the near future. Such a concentration causes kidney damage in some other mammals. Beaver kidneys fro the Mulde, a tributary of the Elbe, contained on average 467 micrograms Cd/g(dry), the greatest concentration reported in herbivores. Nevertheless, the fertility along the Mulde was high, due to the fact that it is an otherwise optimal beaver habitat. Furthermore, the low fertility in the Biesbosch was due to a small fraction of successful breeding pairs. We conclude that the initial low population growth rate in the Biesbosch was probably not caused by contamination with Cd. However, future effects on the individual (reproductive) life span cannot be ruled out.