Synthetic musks in the natural environment: Sources, occurrence, concentration, and fate-A review of recent developments (2010-2023)

Abstract

Synthetic musks (SMs) have served as cost-effective substitutes for natural musk compounds in personal care and daily chemical products for decades. Their widespread use has led to their detection in various environmental matrices, raising concerns about potential risks. Despite numerous studies on SM levels in different natural environments, a systematic review of their contemporary presence is lacking. This review aims to address this gap by summarising recent research developments on SMs in diverse natural environments, including river water, lake water, seawater, estuarine water, groundwater, snow, meltwater, sediments, aquatic suspended matter, soils, sands, outdoor air, and atmospheric particulate matter. Covering the period from 2010 to 2023, the review focuses on four SM categories: nitro, polycyclic, macrocyclic, and alicyclic. It systematically examines their sources, occurrences, concentrations, spatial and temporal variations, and fate. The literature reveals widespread detection of SMs in the natural environment (freshwater and sediments in particular), with polycyclic musks being the most studied group. Both direct (e.g., wastewater discharges) and indirect (e.g., human recreational activities) sources contribute to SM presence. Levels of SMs vary greatly among studies with higher levels observed in certain regions, such as sediments in Southeast Asia. Spatial and temporal variations are also evident. The fate of SMs in the environment depends on their physicochemical properties and environmental processes, including bioaccumulation, biodegradation, photodegradation, adsorption, phase exchange, hydro-dilution effects. Biodegradation and photodegradation can decrease SM levels, but may produce more persistent and eco-toxic products. Modelling approaches have been employed to analyse SM fate, especially for indirect processes like photodegradation or long-distance atmospheric transport. Future studies should further investigate the complex fate if SMs and their environmental influence. This review enhances understanding of SM status in the natural environment and supports efforts to control environmental contamination.

Keywords: Emerging micropollutants; Galaxolide (HHCB); Natural environment; Synthetic musks; Tonalide (AHTN).