Understanding material surfaces and interfaces is vital in applications such as catalysis or electronics. By combining energies from electronic structure with statistical mechanics, ab initio simulations can, in principle, predict the structure of material surfaces as a function of thermodynamic variables. However, accurate energy simulations are prohibitive when coupled to the vast phase space that must be statistically sampled. Here we present a bi-faceted computational loop to predict surface phase diagrams of multicomponent materials that accelerates both the energy scoring and statistical sampling methods. Fast, scalable and data-efficient machine learning interatomic potentials are trained on high-throughput density-functional-theory calculations through closed-loop active learning. Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling in the semigrand canonical ensemble is enabled by using virtual surface sites. The predicted surfaces for GaN(0001), Si(111) and SrTiO3(001) are in agreement with past work and indicate that the proposed strategy can model complex material surfaces and discover previously unreported surface terminations.
© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.