Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls

Nilihan E M Sanal-Hayes; Lawrence D Hayes; Marie Mclaughlin; Ethan C J Berry; Nicholas F Sculthorpe

doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls

Am J Med. 2023 Dec 15:S0002-9343(23)00756-8. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006. Online ahead of print.

Authors

Nilihan E M Sanal-Hayes¹, Lawrence D Hayes², Marie Mclaughlin³, Ethan C J Berry⁴, Nicholas F Sculthorpe⁴

Affiliations

¹ School of Health and Society, University of Salford, Salford, UK; Sport and Physical Activity Research Institute, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow, UK.
² Sport and Physical Activity Research Institute, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow, UK. Electronic address: lawrence.hayes@uws.ac.uk.
³ Sport and Physical Activity Research Institute, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow, UK; School of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Hull, Hull, UK.
⁴ Sport and Physical Activity Research Institute, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow, UK.

PMID: 38104642
DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

Abstract

Background: Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20).

Methods: A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls.

Results: Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls.

Conclusion: Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

Keywords: Chronic fatigue syndrome; Complex post-traumatic stress disorder; Long COVID; Myalgic encephalomyelitis; Post-traumatic stress disorder; Trauma.