Purpose: To develop and validate a fully automated deep-learning-based tool for segmentation of the human eyeball using a three-dimensional (3D) U-Net, compare its performance to semiautomatic segmentation ground truth and a two-dimensional (2D) U-Net, and analyze age and sex differences in eyeball volume, as well as gaze-dependent volume consistency in normal subjects.
Methods: We retrospectively collected 474 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, including different gazing scans, from 119 patients. A 10-fold cross-validation was applied to separate the dataset into training, test, and validation sets for both the 3D U-Net and 2D U-Net. Performance accuracy was measured using four quantitative metrics compared to the ground truth, and Bland-Altman plot analysis was conducted. Age and sex differences in eyeball volume and variability in eyeball volume differences across gazing directions were analyzed.
Results: The 3D U-Net outperformed the 2D U-Net with mean accuracy scores >0.95, showing acceptable agreement in the Bland-Altman plot analysis despite a tendency for slight overestimation (mean difference = -0.172 cm³). Significant sex differences and age effects on eyeball volume were observed for both methods (P < 0.05). No significant volume differences were found between the segmentation methods or within each method for the different gazing directions. Significant differences in performance accuracy were identified among the five gazing directions, with the upward direction showing a notably lower performance.
Conclusions: Our study demonstrated the effectiveness of 3D U-Net human eyeball volume segmentation using T2-weighted MRI. The robustness and reliability of 3D U-Net across diverse populations and gaze directions support enhanced ophthalmic diagnosis and treatment strategies.
Translational relevance: Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of using the proposed 3D U-Net model for the automatic segmentation of the human eyeball, with potential applications in various ophthalmic research fields that require the analysis of 3D geometric eye globe shapes or eye movement detection.