Investigating the associations between organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and fine particles in paired indoor and outdoor air: A probabilistic prediction model for deriving OPFRs in indoor environments

Quang-Oai Lu; Chien-Cheng Jung; How-Ran Chao; Pei-Shih Chen; Chia-Wei Lee; Quynh Thi Phuong Tran; Jyun-Yi Ciou; Wei-Hsiang Chang

doi:10.1016/j.envint.2023.107871

Investigating the associations between organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and fine particles in paired indoor and outdoor air: A probabilistic prediction model for deriving OPFRs in indoor environments

Environ Int. 2023 Apr:174:107871. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107871. Epub 2023 Mar 11.

Authors

Quang-Oai Lu¹, Chien-Cheng Jung², How-Ran Chao³, Pei-Shih Chen⁴, Chia-Wei Lee⁵, Quynh Thi Phuong Tran⁶, Jyun-Yi Ciou¹, Wei-Hsiang Chang⁷

Affiliations

¹ Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan.
² Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung 406, Taiwan.
³ Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Neipu, Pingtung County 912, Taiwan.
⁴ Department of Public Health, College of Health Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
⁵ Department of Safety, Health, and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan.
⁶ Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
⁷ Department of Food Safety/Hygiene and Risk Management, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan; Research Center of Environmental Trace Toxic Substances, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan. Electronic address: whchang@mail.ncku.edu.tw.

PMID: 36931197
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107871

Abstract

Contaminants of emerging concern such as organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are associated with atmospheric fine particles (PM_2.5), which pose the greatest health risk in the world. However, few surveys have explored the interaction between PM_2.5 and OPFRs in residential paired indoor/outdoor environments. 11 priority OPFRs and PM_2.5 were investigated across 178 paired indoor and outdoor air samples taken from 89 children's households in southern Taiwan, across cold and warm seasons. This involved exploring their associations with building characteristics, interior materials, and human activities. We developed a probabilistic predictive model for indoor OPFRs based on the indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratio of contaminants and an air quality index. The significant associations of paired indoor/outdoor OPFRs and PM_2.5 were explored. The indoor level of OPFRs was greater than that of outdoor households, contrasting with PM_2.5. The I/O OPFRs ratio was higher than 1 (except for TEHP, EHDPP, and TCP), which suggests that the sources of OPFRs were primarily emitted from indoors. Indoor TCEP was significantly positively associated with indoor and outdoor PM_2.5. The OPFR level detected in apartments was higher than in houses due to the greater decoration, furniture and electronic devices. However, this was not the case for PM_2.5. TCIPP was the dominant compound in paired indoor and outdoor air. The indoor OPFR predictive model obtained a high accuracy with an R² value of 0.87. The material used in mattresses, the use of purifiers and heaters, and the total material area were the main influencing factors for indoor OPFRs in households. These findings could provide important evidence of the interaction between paired indoor/outdoor OPFRs and PM_2.5 and interior equipment in different building types. In addition, it could prevent the potential risks posed by indoor/outdoor air pollutants and eliminate OPFR emissions through the selection of better construction and building materials.

Keywords: Building type; Generalized Linear/non-Linear Model; Human activity; Interior decorating materials; Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs); PM(2.5); Seasonal trends.

Publication types

Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't

MeSH terms

Air Pollutants* / analysis
Air Pollution, Indoor* / analysis
Child
Environmental Monitoring
Flame Retardants* / analysis
Humans
Organophosphates / analysis
Particulate Matter

Substances

Organophosphates
Flame Retardants
Air Pollutants
Particulate Matter