The economic and environmental sustainability of extensive livestock production systems requires the optimisation of soil management, pasture production and animal grazing. Soil compaction is generally viewed as an indicator of soil degradation processes and a determinant factor in crop productivity. In the Montado silvopastoral ecosystem, characteristic of the Iberian Peninsula, animal trampling is mentioned as a variable to consider in soil compaction. This study aims: (i) to assess the spatial variation in the compaction profile of the 0-0.30 m deep soil layer over several years; (ii) to evaluate the effect of animal trampling on soil compaction; and (iii) to demonstrate the utility of combining various technological tools for sensing and mapping indicators of soil characteristics (Cone Index, CI; and apparent electrical conductivity, ECa), of pastures' vegetative vigour (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI) and of cows' grazing zones (Global Positioning Systems, GPS collars). The significant correlation between CI, soil moisture content (SMC) and ECa and between ECa and soil clay content shows the potential of using these expedient tools provided by the development of Precision Agriculture. The compaction resulting from animal trampling was significant outside the tree canopy (OTC) in the four evaluated dates and in the three soil layers considered (0-0.10 m; 0.10-0.20 m; 0.20-0.30 m). However, under the tree canopy (UTC), the effect of animal trampling was significant only in the 0-0.10 m soil layer and in three of the four dates, with a tendency for a greater CI at greater depths (0.10-0.30 m), in zones with a lower animal presence. These results suggest that this could be a dynamic process, with recovery cycles in the face of grazing management, seasonal fluctuations in soil moisture or spatial variation in specific soil characteristics (namely clay contents). The NDVI shows potential for monitoring the effect of livestock trampling during the peak spring production phase, with greater vigour in areas with less animal trampling. These results provide good perspectives for future studies that allow the calibration and validation of these tools to support the decision-making process of the agricultural manager.
Keywords: livestock trampling; precision grazing; sensors; soil compaction.