Beyond mindfulness: Arousal-driven modulation of attentional control during arousal-based practices

Maria Kozhevnikov; Alina Veronika Irene Strasser; Elizabeth McDougal; Rupali Dhond; Geoffrey Samuel

doi:10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100053

Beyond mindfulness: Arousal-driven modulation of attentional control during arousal-based practices

Curr Res Neurobiol. 2022 Sep 30:3:100053. doi: 10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100053. eCollection 2022.

Authors

Maria Kozhevnikov^{1

2}, Alina Veronika Irene Strasser¹, Elizabeth McDougal³, Rupali Dhond^{4

5}, Geoffrey Samuel^{3

6}

Affiliations

¹ National University of Singapore, Psychology Department, Singapore.
² Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, MGH & Harvard Medical School, MA, USA.
³ University of Sydney, Australia.
⁴ VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA.
⁵ Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
⁶ Cardiff University, UK.

Abstract

Here we report meditative techniques, which modulate attentional control by arousal-driven influences and not by monitoring continuous thought processes as during mindfulness-related practices. We focus on Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) practices, during which a sequence of generation (self-visualization as a deity - Yidam) or completion with sign (inner heat -Tummo) stages necessarily precedes non-dual awareness (NDA) Tantric Mahamudra. We compared the electrocardiographic and electroencephalographic correlates of Mahamudra performed after rest (non-Tantric Mahamudra) with Mahamudra performed after Yidam (Tantric Mahamudra) in 16 highly experienced Vajrayana practitioners, 10 of whom also performed Tummo. Both Yidam and Tummo developed the state of PNS withdrawal (arousal) and phasic alertness, as reflected by HF HRV decreases and Alpha2 power increases, later neurophysiologically employed in Tantric Mahamudra. The latter led to the unique state of high cortical excitability, "non-selective" focused attention, and significantly reduced attentional control, quantified by power reductions in all frequency bands, except Theta. In contrast, similar to mindfulness-related practices, non-Tantric Mahamudra was performed in a state of PNS dominance (relaxation), tonic alertness, and active monitoring, as suggested by Alpha1 power increases and less pronounced decreases in other frequency bands. A neurobiological model of meditation is proposed, differentiating arousal-based and mindfulness-related practices.

Keywords: Arousal; Arousal-based meditation; Attentional control; Autonomic nervous system; Mindfulness-related meditation; Non-dual awareness.