Macrophages produce itaconic acid in phagosomes in response to bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide to eliminate invading pathogenic bacteria. Itaconic acid competitively inhibits the first enzyme of the bacterial glyoxylate cycle. To overcome itaconic acid stress, bacteria employ the bacterial LysR-type transcriptional regulator RipR. However, it remains unknown which molecule activates RipR in bacterial pathogenesis. In this study, we determined the crystal structure of the regulatory domain of RipR from the intracellular pathogen Salmonella. The RipR regulatory domain structure exhibited the typical dimeric arrangement with the putative ligand-binding site between the two subdomains. Our isothermal titration calorimetry experiments identified isocitrate as the physiological ligand of RipR, whose intracellular level is increased in response to itaconic acid stress. We further found that 3-phenylpropionic acid significantly decreased the resistance of the bacteria to an itaconic acid challenge. Consistently, the complex structure revealed that the compound is antagonistically bound to the RipR ligand-binding site. This study provides the molecular basis of bacterial survival in itaconic acid stress from our immune systems. Further studies are required to reveal biochemical activity, which would elucidate how Salmonella survives in macrophage phagosomes by defending against itaconic acid inhibition of bacterial metabolism.
Keywords: 3-phenylpropionic acid; LysR-type transcriptional regulator; glyoxylate cycle; isocitrate; itaconic acid.
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