Circulating Illness and Changes in Thermometer Use Behavior: Series of Cross-sectional Analyses

Abstract

Background: Temperature-taking behaviors vary with levels of circulating infectious illness; however, little is known about how these behaviors differ by demographic characteristics. Populations with higher perceived risks of illness are more likely to adopt protective health behaviors.

Objective: We investigated differences in temperature-taking frequency and the proportion of readings that were feverish among demographic groups (age, gender, urban/rural status) over influenza offseason; influenza season; and waves 1, 2, and 3 of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods: Using data from smart thermometers collected from May 1, 2019, to February 28, 2021, across the United States, we calculated the frequency of temperature-taking and the proportion of temperature readings that were feverish. Mixed-effects negative binomial and mixed-effects logistic regression analyses were performed to identify demographic characteristics associated with temperature-taking frequency and the proportion of feverish readings, respectively. Separate models were fit over five study periods: influenza offseason (n=122,480), influenza season (n=174,191), wave 1 of COVID-19 (n=350,385), wave 2 (n=366,489), and wave 3 (n=391,578).

Results: Both temperature-taking frequency and the proportion of feverish readings differed by study period (ANOVA P<.001) and were the highest during influenza season. During all periods, children aged 2-5 years and 6-11 years had significantly higher frequencies of temperature-taking than users aged 19-30 years, and children had the highest proportion of feverish readings of all age groups, after adjusting for covariates. During wave 1 of COVID-19, users over the age of 60 years had 1.79 times (95% CI 1.76-1.83) the rate of temperature-taking as users aged 19-30 years and 74% lower odds (95% CI 72%-75%) of a reading being feverish. Across all periods, men had significantly lower temperature-taking frequency and significantly higher odds of having a feverish reading compared to women. Users living in urban areas had significantly higher frequencies of temperature-taking than rural users during all periods, except wave 2 of COVID-19, and urban users had higher odds of a reading being feverish in all study periods except wave 1 of COVID-19.

Conclusions: Temperature-taking behavior and the proportion of readings that were feverish are associated with both population disease levels and individual demographic characteristics. Differences in the health behavior of temperature-taking may reflect changes in both perceived and actual illness risk. Specifically, older adults may have experienced an increase in perceived risk during the first three waves of COVID-19, leading to increased rates of temperature monitoring, even when their odds of fever were lower than those of younger adults. Men's perceived risk of circulating infectious illnesses such as influenza and COVID-19 may be lower than that of women, since men took their temperature less frequently and each temperature had a higher odds of being feverish across all study periods. Infectious disease surveillance should recognize and incorporate how behavior impacts illness monitoring and testing.

Keywords: COVID-19; elderly population; fever; health behavior; health monitoring; influenza; older adult; perceived risk; percent positivity; population demography; smart technology; smart thermometer; surveillance; thermometer.