The residues of pharmaceuticals in surface waters of megacities and ecotoxicological implications are of particular concern. In this study, we combined field investigations and model simulations to explore the contamination of cardiovascular and lipid-lowering drugs, one group of the most prescribed medications globally, in surface waters of a typical megacity, Shanghai, with a high wastewater treatment ratio (≈96%). Among 26 target substances, 19 drugs were detected with aqueous concentrations ranging from 0.2 (ketanserin) to 715 ng/L (telmisartan). Of them, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, telmisartan and irbesartan, were dominant besides β-blockers. Spatial distribution analysis demonstrated their much higher levels in tributaries compared to the mainstream. The results of model simulations and field investigation revealed relatively low concentrations of cardiovascular and lipid-lowering drugs in surface waters of Shanghai compared to other cities in highly developed countries, which is associated with low per capita usage in China. Ecotoxicological studies in zebrafish embryos further revealed developmental effects, including altered hatching success and heart rate, by irbesartan, telmisartan, lidocaine, and their mixtures at ng/L concentrations, which are typical levels in surface waters. Overall, the present results suggest that the high wastewater treatment ratio was not sufficient to protect fish species in the aquatic ecosystem of Shanghai. Exposure to cardiovascular and lipid-lowering drugs and associated risks will further increase in the future due to healthcare improvements and population aging.
Keywords: cardiovascular drugs; contamination in surface water; developmental toxicity; field investigation; lipid-lowering drugs; model simulation; risk potential.