Late Evening Eating Patterns among US Adults Vary in Their Associations With, and Impact on, Energy Intake and Diet Quality: Evidence from What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2016

Abstract

Background: Evening eating has been associated with higher energy intake and lower nutrient density. However, these qualities may not characterize all late evening (LE) eating patterns.

Objective: We sought to characterize US adults' LE eating patterns on a given day and identify differences, if any, in pattern-specific associations with, and impact on, daily energy intake and total diet quality.

Design: LE eating patterns, energy intakes, and Healthy Eating Index (HEI) scores were identified using Day-1 dietary recall data from the cross-sectional National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2016.

Participants/setting: The sample included adults aged ≥ 20 years (n = 9,861). LE reporters were respondents who consumed foods/beverages between 20:00 and 23:59 on the intake day.

Main outcome measures: Energy intake and HEI-2015 scores by LE status/pattern and the impact of LE consumption on these measures.

Statistical analyses: Cluster analysis assigned individuals to LE eating patterns based on the LE energy contribution of food/beverage groups. Regression models estimated energy intake and HEI-2015 scores; estimates were compared between LE reporters and nonreporters. Similarly, LE's contribution to total energy and the difference in total HEI inclusive vs exclusive of LE consumption were estimated and compared among patterns.

Results: Among US adults, 64.4% were LE reporters. Eleven LE patterns were identified; the six most prevalent patterns (representing 89% of LE reporters) were further analyzed. Daily energy intake in all prevalent patterns except the fruit pattern exceeded that of nonreporters by ≥ 268 kcal (unadjusted; P < 0.001), varying by pattern. Conversely, total HEI score did not differ from that of nonreporters (51.0) in any pattern except the fruit pattern, where it was higher (57.4, unadjusted; P < 0.001). Generally, LE consumption's impact on energy was high and its impact on HEI scores was low.

Conclusions: Late evening food/beverage consumption is common among US adults, and LE patterns are not monolithic in their associations with, and impact on, total energy intake and dietary quality.

Keywords: Adults; Diet quality; Energy intake; Late evening dietary patterns; NHANES.