Background and aims: Plant reproductive traits are widely understood to be responsive to the selective pressures exerted by pollinators, but there is also increasing evidence for an important role for antagonists such as herbivores in shaping these traits. Many dioecious species show leaky sex expression, with males and females occasionally producing flowers of the opposite sex. Here, we asked to what extent leakiness in sex expression in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae) might also be plastically responsive to simulated herbivory. This is important because enhanced leakiness in dioecious populations could lead to a shift in both the mating system and in the conditions for transitions between combined and separate sexes.
Methods: We examined the effect of simulated herbivory on the sexual expression of males and females of M. annua in two experiments in which different levels of simulated herbivory led to enhanced leakiness in both sexes.
Key results: We showed that leaky sex expression in both males and females of the wind-pollinated dioecious herb M. annua is enhanced in response to simulated herbivory, increasing the probability for and the degree of leakiness in both sexes. We also found that leakiness was greater in larger females but not in larger males.
Conclusions: We discuss hypotheses for a possible functional link between herbivory and leaky sex expression, and consider what simulated herbivory-induced leakiness might imply for the evolutionary ecology of plant reproductive systems, especially the breakdown of dioecy and the evolution of hermaphroditism.
Keywords: Herbivory; dioecy; hermaphroditism; leakiness; mating system; monoecy; reproduction; self-fertilization; sex inconstancy; sexual system; size-dependent sex allocation; wind pollination.
© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company.