Tumor-associated tertiary lymphoid structures (TA-TLS) are associated with enhanced patient survival and responsiveness to cancer therapies, but the mechanisms underlying their development are unknown. We show here that TA-TLS development in murine melanoma is orchestrated by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) with characteristics of lymphoid tissue organizer cells that are induced by tumor necrosis factor receptor signaling. CAF organization into reticular networks is mediated by CD8 T cells, while CAF accumulation and TA-TLS expansion depend on CXCL13-mediated recruitment of B cells expressing lymphotoxin-α1β2. Some of these elements are also overrepresented in human TA-TLS. Additionally, we demonstrate that immunotherapy induces more and larger TA-TLS that are more often organized with discrete T and B cell zones, and that TA-TLS presence, number, and size are correlated with reduced tumor size and overall response to checkpoint immunotherapy. This work provides a platform for manipulating TA-TLS development as a cancer immunotherapy strategy.
Keywords: B lymphocytes; B16 melanoma; CD8 T lymphocytes; cancer-associated fibroblasts; checkpoint blockade immunotherapy; lymphoid tissue inducer cell; lymphoid tissue organizer cell; lymphotoxin-β receptor; tertiary lymphoid structure; tumor necrosis factor receptor.
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