Bisphenol A (BPA) is, due to its widespread use including the production of plastic materials, an ubiquitous pollutant in the aquatic environment. Due to evidence of adverse BPA effects on the environment and human health, its use has been restricted and replaced by analogues such as bisphenol F (BPF). This study examined the toxicity of BPA, BPF and their mixture towards primary producers, the eukaryotic green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the prokaryotic cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis. The results demonstrated that S. leopoliensis is more sensitive than P. subcapitata, whereas toxic potential of the two BPs is comparable and represents comparable hazard for phytoplankton. The toxicity of the binary mixture was predicted by different models (concentration addition, independent action, combination index and the isobologram method) and compared to experimental data. Additive effect was observed in P. subcapitata over the whole effect concentration range (EC5-EC90), whereas in S. leopoliensis, no pronounced combined effect was observed. The environmental risk characterisation based on the comparison of reported concentrations of BPA and BPF in surface waters to the predicted no-effect concentration values obtained in this study showed that at certain industrial areas, BPA represents environmental risk, whereas BPF does not. However, BPF concentrations in aquatic environment are expected to increase in the future. To enable environmental risk assessment of BP analogues, more data on the toxicity to aquatic species, including combined effect, as well as data on their occurrence in the aquatic environment are needed.Graphical abstract.
Keywords: Aquatic ecotoxicology; Environmental risk assessment; Growth inhibition; Plastic pollution; Pollutant degradation; Toxic stress.