Anatomical knowledge, such as gross anatomy, neuroanatomy, histology, and embryology, involve three-dimensional (3D) learning and interpretation. Virtual 3D models especially have been used in the anatomical sciences both as a supplement to traditional anatomical education with cadaveric specimens and as a substitute for cadavers at institutions that do not utilize human donors for educational purposes. This paper discusses the methods used to assess the models' validation and accuracy, as well as suggestions for the models' improvement. This paper also aims to describe students' learning of anatomy using stereoscopic 3D models and provides a summary of the results from the literature concerning students' performance outcomes using virtual stereoscopic models as well as both students' and experts' perceptions of their utilization. There have been mixed results in the literature concerning the effectiveness of virtual 3D anatomical models in general, but there is limited research on stereoscopic anatomical models specifically. Stereoscopic anatomical models have shown to improve the learning of students, particularly for the students with low spatial ability, and they have the potential to enhance students' understanding of 3D relationships.
Keywords: Anatomy; Education; Evaluation; Stereoscopic models; Teaching; Virtual 3D models.