Chlorinated effluent organic matter causes higher toxicity than chlorinated natural organic matter by inducing more intracellular reactive oxygen species

Abstract

During unplanned indirect potable reuse, treated wastewater that contains effluent organic matter (EOM) enters the drinking water source, resulting in different toxicity from natural organic matter (NOM) in surface water during chlorination. This study found that, during chlorination, EOM formed more total organic halogen (TOX) and highly toxic nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (DBPs) like dichloroacetonitrile and trichloronitromethane than NOM did. Oxidative stress including both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells substantially increased when exposed to chlorinated EOM and chlorinated NOM. The excessive ROS damaged biological macromolecules including DNA, RNA to form 8-hydroxy-(deoxy)guanosine and proteins to form protein carbonyls. Impaired macromolecule further triggered cell cycle arrest at the S and G₂ phases, led to cell apoptosis and eventual necrosis. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of chlorinated EOM were both higher than those of chlorinated NOM. Adding the blocker L-buthionine-sulfoximine of intracellular antioxidant glutathione demonstrating that oxidative stress might be responsible for toxicity. ROS was further identified to be the main cause of toxicity induction. These findings highlight the risk from chlorinated EOM in the case of unplanned indirect potable reuse, because it showed higher level of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity than chlorinated NOM via inducing more ROS in mammalian cells.

Keywords: Chlorination; Cytotoxicity; Effluent organic matter; Genotoxicity; Oxidative stress.