Background: One of the most important concepts within Cognitive Social Theory as framed by Bandura is the perceived self-efficacy; this concept became widespread in 1981 when Mathias Jerusalem and Ralf Schwarzer, using 10 items, established a one-dimensional and universal construct of this scale. The main purpose of this study is to show that the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) is not a one-dimensional and universal construct, as is currently assumed.
Method: The data from 19,719 people from 26 countries were analyzed. In order to identify and understand invariance we applied seven multivariate statistical techniques.
Results: The findings suggest the existence of a multidimensional structure and differential item functioning by country. Insofar as there is differential item functioning by country and it is not possible to universalize it, and there are several items on the scale that statistically constitute additional factors. The results confirm that the self-efficacy construct is neither universal nor unidimensional.
Conclusions: A psychometric instrument must be valued and used with great care; the one in question is being used in a generalized way.