In a study of 185 elderly living in assisted care and 192 frail aged living in the community in the Sydney metropolitan area, nursing home residents were found to be at a 3-fold and hostel dwellers at a 2-fold risk of Vitamin D [25(OH)D] deficiency (<25 nmol/L) compared to self care residents. Middle Eastern people were found to be at 4-fold risk and Vietnamese a 3-fold risk of deficiency compared to their Australian counterparts. In recently arrived Chinese immigrants, Vitamin D deficiency, was found in 28%, and marginal levels (<37 nmol/L) in 60%, compared to the 34 and 76% found in our nursing home population, and 25 and 57% in hostel care residents. Of the Middle Eastern elderly, 58% were deficient and 83% marginal; although only 18% of Vietnamese were deficient, 68% had marginal Vitamin D status. Other factors associated with Vitamin D deficiency were mobility and sun exposure in assisted care, and low dietary Vitamin D and calcium intake, reduced exercise levels and high % body fat levels in the immigrant groups.