In a proportion of patients with atrial fibrillation, antiarrhythmic drugs are either ineffective, unsafe, or poorly tolerated. Accordingly, a variety of non-pharmacological treatments have been developed. This article critically reviews these modalities. (i) For ventricular rate control, catheter ablation of the atrioventricular node with pacemaker implantation is commonplace. An alternative is atrioventricular node modulation using a procedure similar to "slow pathway" ablation. (ii) For restoration of sinus rhythm, internal cardioversion using low energy shocks is highly effective; this has prompted the development of atrial and dual chamber defibrillators. (iii) To eliminate the atrial fibrillation substrate, a number of surgical procedures have been developed, of which the most effective is the "Maze" operation. The efficacy of this operation cannot be reproduced by conventional catheter ablation, and current research is concentrating on simplified procedures using new catheter designs for linear ablation. (iv) Finally, pacemakers and catheter ablation may be used to suppress the triggers for atrial fibrillation episodes. A number of atrial algorithms are under investigation for overdrive suppression of ectopy, and the use of multisite atrial pacing to alter the atrial response to ectopy has shown promising results. Catheter ablation has shown considerable success in preventing "focal" atrial fibrillation that is triggered or driven by ectopy arising usually from the pulmonary veins. To date, there are few data regarding the long-term efficacy and safety of these techniques, and their effects on quality of life. However, ongoing multicentre trials addressing these issues are expected to report over the next few years.